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One or none.

It is useful for modelling any computation that is allowed to fail.

Examples

Using the Alternative instance of Control.Monad.Except, the following functions:

>>> import Control.Monad.Except

>>> canFail = throwError "it failed" :: Except String Int>>> final = return 42                :: Except String Int

Can be combined by allowing the first function to fail:

>>> runExcept $ canFail *> finalLeft "it failed"

>>> runExcept $ optional canFail *> finalRight 42

An infix synonym for fmap.

The name of this operator is an allusion to Prelude.$. Note the similarities between their types:

 ($)  ::              (a -> b) ->   a ->   b
(<$>) :: Functor f => (a -> b) -> f a -> f b

Whereas Prelude.$ is function application, <$> is function application lifted over a Functor.

Examples

Convert from a Maybe Int to a Maybe String using show:

>>> show <$> NothingNothing

>>> show <$> Just 3Just "3"

Convert from an Either Int Int to an Either Int String using show:

>>> show <$> Left 17Left 17

>>> show <$> Right 17Right "17"

Double each element of a list:

>>> (*2) <$> [1,2,3][2,4,6]

Apply even to the second element of a pair:

>>> even <$> (2,2)(2,True)

A monoid on applicative functors.

If defined, some and many should be the least solutions of the equations:

• some v = (:) Prelude.<$> v <*> many v

• many v = some v <|> pure []

Examples

>>> Nothing <|> Just 42Just 42

>>> [1, 2] <|> [3, 4][1,2,3,4]

>>> empty <|> print (2^15)32768

A functor with application, providing operations to

• embed pure expressions (pure), and

• sequence computations and combine their results (<*> and liftA2).

A minimal complete definition must include implementations of pure and of either <*> or liftA2. If it defines both, then they must behave the same as their default definitions:

(<*>) = liftA2 id

liftA2 f x y = f Prelude.<$> x <*> y

Further, any definition must satisfy the following:

Identity

pure id <*> v = v

Composition

pure (.) <*> u <*> v <*> w = u <*> (v <*> w)

Homomorphism

pure f <*> pure x = pure (f x)

Interchange

u <*> pure y = pure ($ y) <*> u

The other methods have the following default definitions, which may be overridden with equivalent specialized implementations:

• u *> v = (id <$ u) <*> v

• u <* v = liftA2 const u v

As a consequence of these laws, the Functor instance for f will satisfy

• fmap f x = pure f <*> x

It may be useful to note that supposing

forall x y. p (q x y) = f x . g y

it follows from the above that

liftA2 p (liftA2 q u v) = liftA2 f u . liftA2 g v

If f is also a Monad, it should satisfy

• pure = return

• m1 <*> m2 = m1 >>= (\x1 -> m2 >>= (\x2 -> return (x1 x2)))

• (*>) = (>>)

(which implies that pure and <*> satisfy the applicative functor laws).

The join function is the conventional monad join operator. It is used to remove one level of monadic structure, projecting its bound argument into the outer level.

'join bss' can be understood as the do expression

do bs <- bss
   bs

Examples

>>> join [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]][1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]

>>> join (Just (Just 3))Just 3

A common use of join is to run an IO computation returned from an GHC.Conc.STM transaction, since GHC.Conc.STM transactions can't perform IO directly. Recall that

GHC.Internal.Conc.atomically :: STM a -> IO a

is used to run GHC.Conc.STM transactions atomically. So, by specializing the types of GHC.Internal.Conc.atomically and join to

GHC.Internal.Conc.atomically :: STM (IO b) -> IO (IO b)
join       :: IO (IO b)  -> IO b

we can compose them as

join . GHC.Internal.Conc.atomically :: STM (IO b) -> IO b

to run an GHC.Conc.STM transaction and the IO action it returns.

Conditional execution of Applicative expressions. For example,

Examples

when debug (putStrLn "Debugging")

will output the string Debugging if the Boolean value debug is True, and otherwise do nothing.

>>> putStr "pi:" >> when False (print 3.14159)pi:

Right-to-left composition of Kleisli arrows. (>=>), with the arguments flipped.

Note how this operator resembles function composition (.):

(.)   ::            (b ->   c) -> (a ->   b) -> a ->   c
(<=<) :: Monad m => (b -> m c) -> (a -> m b) -> a -> m c

Left-to-right composition of Kleisli arrows.

'(bs >=> cs) a' can be understood as the do expression

do b <- bs a
   cs b

or in terms of (>>=) as

bs a >>= cs

Repeat an action indefinitely.

Examples

A common use of forever is to process input from network sockets, System.IO.Handles, and channels (e.g. MVar and Chan).

For example, here is how we might implement an echo server, using forever both to listen for client connections on a network socket and to echo client input on client connection handles:

echoServer :: Socket -> IO ()
echoServer socket = forever $ do
  client <- accept socket
  forkFinally (echo client) (\_ -> hClose client)
  where
    echo :: Handle -> IO ()
    echo client = forever $
      hGetLine client >>= hPutStrLn client

Note that "forever" isn't necessarily non-terminating. If the action is in a MonadPlus and short-circuits after some number of iterations. then forever actually returns mzero, effectively short-circuiting its caller.

Conditional failure of Alternative computations. Defined by

guard True  = pure ()
guard False = empty

Examples

Common uses of guard include conditionally signalling an error in an error monad and conditionally rejecting the current choice in an Alternative-based parser.

As an example of signalling an error in the error monad Maybe, consider a safe division function safeDiv x y that returns Nothing when the denominator y is zero and Just (x `div` y) otherwise. For example:

>>> safeDiv 4 0Nothing

>>> safeDiv 4 2Just 2

A definition of safeDiv using guards, but not guard:

safeDiv :: Int -> Int -> Maybe Int
safeDiv x y | y /= 0    = Just (x `div` y)
            | otherwise = Nothing

A definition of safeDiv using guard and Monad do-notation:

safeDiv :: Int -> Int -> Maybe Int
safeDiv x y = do
  guard (y /= 0)
  return (x `div` y)

Direct MonadPlus equivalent of Data.List.filter.

Examples

The Data.List.filter function is just mfilter specialized to the list monad:

Data.List.filter = ( mfilter :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a] )

An example using mfilter with the Maybe monad:

>>> mfilter odd (Just 1)Just 1>>> mfilter odd (Just 2)Nothing

Like replicateM, but discards the result.

Examples

>>> replicateM_ 3 (putStr "a")aaa

The reverse of when.

Examples

>>> do x <- getLine       unless (x == "hi") (putStrLn "hi!")comingupwithexamplesisdifficulthi!

>>> unless (pi > exp 1) NothingJust ()

The sum of a collection of actions using (<|>), generalizing concat.

msum is just like asum, but specialised to MonadPlus.

Examples

Basic usage, using the MonadPlus instance for Maybe:

>>> msum [Just "Hello", Nothing, Just "World"]Just "Hello"

void value discards or ignores the result of evaluation, such as the return value of an System.IO.IO action.

Examples

Replace the contents of a Maybe Int with unit:

>>> void NothingNothing

>>> void (Just 3)Just ()

Replace the contents of an Either Int Int with unit, resulting in an Either Int ():

>>> void (Left 8675309)Left 8675309

>>> void (Right 8675309)Right ()

Replace every element of a list with unit:

>>> void [1,2,3][(),(),()]

Replace the second element of a pair with unit:

>>> void (1,2)(1,())

Discard the result of an System.IO.IO action:

>>> mapM print [1,2]12[(),()]

>>> void $ mapM print [1,2]12

Monads that also support choice and failure.

Monads in which IO computations may be embedded. Any monad built by applying a sequence of monad transformers to the IO monad will be an instance of this class.

Instances should satisfy the following laws, which state that liftIO is a transformer of monads:

• liftIO . return = return

• liftIO (m >>= f) = liftIO m >>= (liftIO . f)

The class of monoids (types with an associative binary operation that has an identity). Instances should satisfy the following:

Right identity

x <> mempty = x

Left identity

mempty <> x = x

Associativity

x <> (y <> z) = (x <> y) <> z

(

Semigroup

law)

Concatenation

mconcat = foldr (<>) mempty

You can alternatively define mconcat instead of mempty, in which case the laws are:

Unit

mconcat (pure x) = x

Multiplication

mconcat (join xss) = mconcat (fmap mconcat xss)

Subclass

mconcat (toList xs) = sconcat xs

The method names refer to the monoid of lists under concatenation, but there are many other instances.

Some types can be viewed as a monoid in more than one way, e.g. both addition and multiplication on numbers. In such cases we often define newtypes and make those instances of Monoid, e.g. Data.Semigroup.Sum and Data.Semigroup.Product.

NOTE: Semigroup is a superclass of Monoid since base-4.11.0.0.

An associative operation.

Examples

>>> [1,2,3] <> [4,5,6][1,2,3,4,5,6]

>>> Just [1, 2, 3] <> Just [4, 5, 6]Just [1,2,3,4,5,6]

>>> putStr "Hello, " <> putStrLn "World!"Hello, World!

Build a Managed value

Run a Managed computation, enforcing that no acquired resources leak

Acquire a Managed value

This is a potentially unsafe function since it allows a resource to escape its scope. For example, you might use Managed to safely acquire a file handle, like this:

import qualified System.IO as IO

example :: Managed Handle
example = managed (IO.withFile "foo.txt" IO.ReadMode)

... and if you never used the with function then you would never run the risk of accessing the Handle after the file was closed. However, if you use with then you can incorrectly access the handle after the handle is closed, like this:

bad :: IO ()
bad = do
    handle <- with example return
    IO.hPutStrLn handle "bar"  -- This will fail because the handle is closed

... so only use with if you know what you are doing and you're returning a value that is not a resource being managed.

A managed resource that you acquire using with

Add an extension, even if there is already one there, equivalent to addExtension.

"/directory/path" <.> "ext" == "/directory/path.ext"
"/directory/path" <.> ".ext" == "/directory/path.ext"

Combine two paths with a path separator. If the second path starts with a path separator or a drive letter, then it returns the second. The intention is that readFile (dir </> file) will access the same file as setCurrentDirectory dir; readFile file.

Posix:   "/directory" </> "file.ext" == "/directory/file.ext"
Windows: "/directory" </> "file.ext" == "/directory\\file.ext"
         "directory" </> "/file.ext" == "/file.ext"
Valid x => (takeDirectory x </> takeFileName x) `equalFilePath` x

Combined:

Posix:   "/" </> "test" == "/test"
Posix:   "home" </> "bob" == "home/bob"
Posix:   "x:" </> "foo" == "x:/foo"
Windows: "C:\\foo" </> "bar" == "C:\\foo\\bar"
Windows: "home" </> "bob" == "home\\bob"

Not combined:

Posix:   "home" </> "/bob" == "/bob"
Windows: "home" </> "C:\\bob" == "C:\\bob"

Not combined (tricky):

On Windows, if a filepath starts with a single slash, it is relative to the root of the current drive. In [1], this is (confusingly) referred to as an absolute path. The current behavior of </> is to never combine these forms.

Windows: "home" </> "/bob" == "/bob"
Windows: "home" </> "\\bob" == "\\bob"
Windows: "C:\\home" </> "\\bob" == "\\bob"

On Windows, from [1]: "If a file name begins with only a disk designator but not the backslash after the colon, it is interpreted as a relative path to the current directory on the drive with the specified letter." The current behavior of </> is to never combine these forms.

Windows: "D:\\foo" </> "C:bar" == "C:bar"
Windows: "C:\\foo" </> "C:bar" == "C:bar"

Remove last extension, and the "." preceding it.

dropExtension "/directory/path.ext" == "/directory/path"
dropExtension x == fst (splitExtension x)

Does the given filename have an extension?

hasExtension "/directory/path.ext" == True
hasExtension "/directory/path" == False
null (takeExtension x) == not (hasExtension x)

Is a path relative, or is it fixed to the root?

Windows: isRelative "path\\test" == True
Windows: isRelative "c:\\test" == False
Windows: isRelative "c:test" == True
Windows: isRelative "c:\\" == False
Windows: isRelative "c:/" == False
Windows: isRelative "c:" == True
Windows: isRelative "\\\\foo" == False
Windows: isRelative "\\\\?\\foo" == False
Windows: isRelative "\\\\?\\UNC\\foo" == False
Windows: isRelative "/foo" == True
Windows: isRelative "\\foo" == True
Posix:   isRelative "test/path" == True
Posix:   isRelative "/test" == False
Posix:   isRelative "/" == False

According to [1]:

• "A UNC name of any format [is never relative]."

• "You cannot use the "\?" prefix with a relative path."

File and directory names are values of type String, whose precise meaning is operating system dependent. Files can be opened, yielding a handle which can then be used to operate on the contents of that file.

Test whether a path is absolute

Retrieve a FilePath's basename component

Normalise a path

Find the greatest common prefix between a list of FilePaths

Convert a String to a FilePath

Retrieves the FilePath's directory

Retrieve a FilePath's directory name

Convert a FilePath to a String

Get a FilePath's last extension, or Nothing if it has no extension

Retrieves the FilePath's filename component

Convert Text to a FilePath

Retrieves the FilePath's parent directory

Test whether a path is relative

Retrieves the FilePath's root

Split a FilePath into its components

Split a FilePath on its extension

Split a FilePath on its extensions

Remove a prefix from a path

Convert a FilePath to human-readable Text

Note that even though the type says Either this utility actually always succeeds and returns a Right value. The only reason for the Either is compatibility with the old type from the system-filepath package.

Efficient representation of a left fold that preserves the fold's step function, initial accumulator, and extraction function

This allows the Applicative instance to assemble derived folds that traverse the container only once

A 'Fold a b' processes elements of type a and results in a value of type b.

Like Fold, but monadic.

A 'FoldM m a b' processes elements of type a and results in a monadic value of type m b.

A space efficient, packed, unboxed Unicode text type.

This is the simplest representation of UTC. It consists of the day number, and a time offset from midnight. Note that if a day has a leap second added to it, it will have 86401 seconds.

This is a length of time, as measured by UTC. It has a precision of one picosecond (10^-12 s).

Conversion functions such as fromInteger and realToFrac will treat it as seconds. For example, (0.010 :: NominalDiffTime) corresponds to 10 milliseconds.

Enumeration functions will treat it as picoseconds.

It ignores leap-seconds, so it's not necessarily a fixed amount of clock time. For instance, 23:00 UTC + 2 hours of NominalDiffTime = 01:00 UTC (+ 1 day), regardless of whether a leap-second intervened.

Haskell defines operations to read and write characters from and to files, represented by values of type Handle. Each value of this type is a handle: a record used by the Haskell run-time system to manage I/O with file system objects. A handle has at least the following properties:

• whether it manages input or output or both;

• whether it is open, closed or semi-closed;

• whether the object is seekable;

• whether buffering is disabled, or enabled on a line or block basis;

• a buffer (whose length may be zero).

Most handles will also have a current I/O position indicating where the next input or output operation will occur. A handle is readable if it manages only input or both input and output; likewise, it is writable if it manages only output or both input and output. A handle is open when first allocated. Once it is closed it can no longer be used for either input or output, though an implementation cannot re-use its storage while references remain to it. Handles are in the Show and Eq classes. The string produced by showing a handle is system dependent; it should include enough information to identify the handle for debugging. A handle is equal according to == only to itself; no attempt is made to compare the internal state of different handles for equality.

Defines the exit codes that a program can return.

IsString is used in combination with the -XOverloadedStrings language extension to convert the literals to different string types.

For example, if you use the text package, you can say

{-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings  #-}

myText = "hello world" :: Text

Internally, the extension will convert this to the equivalent of

myText = fromString @Text ("hello world" :: String)

Note: You can use fromString in normal code as well, but the usual performance/memory efficiency problems with String apply.

& is a reverse application operator. This provides notational convenience. Its precedence is one higher than that of the forward application operator $, which allows & to be nested in $.

This is a version of flip id, where id is specialized from a -> a to (a -> b) -> (a -> b) which by the associativity of (->) is (a -> b) -> a -> b. flipping this yields a -> (a -> b) -> b which is the type signature of &

Examples

>>> 5 & (+1) & show"6"

>>> sqrt $ [1 / n^2 | n <- [1..1000]] & sum & (*6)3.1406380562059946

Flipped version of <$>.

(<&>) = flip fmap

Examples

Apply (+1) to a list, a Just and a Right:

>>> Just 2 <&> (+1)Just 3

>>> [1,2,3] <&> (+1)[2,3,4]

>>> Right 3 <&> (+1)Right 4